Stalking – The Experiences of Two Groups:
Mental Health Clinicians & University Students

Frances Hughes, RN, DNurs, FCNA(NZ)

Background

Stalking has been given a range of names, e.g. harassment, intrusion, unwanted advances, and definitions (Ravensburg & Miller, 2003). In broad and brief terms, stalking has usefully been described in a study of its prevalence in Australia (Purcell et al., 2002, p.114) as “repeatedly imposing unwanted contacts and/or communications to such an extent that the victim fears for his or her safety”

Stalking is not a new phenomenon. Rather, stalking has a long history being a recorded feature of life since at least the 18th century. Nor is it a phenomenon that only afflicts celebrities. According to research undertaken in the US, UK and Australia, stalking afflicts a greater proportion of the general population than previously thought, and the problem appears to be increasing. For instance, a recent Australian study found that almost 25% of respondents reported having been stalked, with 10% of respondents having experienced a protracted course of stalking (Purcell et al., 2002). Victims of stalking suffer a range of negative effects to varying degrees. Other social and economic impacts resulting from stalking have been noted. The extent and impact of stalking has led many jurisdictions since the 1990s to incorporate this phenomenon into legislation as a specific type of criminal activity. New Zealand passed such legislation in 1997.

Research into stalking has grown apace over the last decade, however it has often been restricted in terms of the countries where it has taken place and the groups focused on. The dual study being undertaken at the University of Auckland was prompted by the work of Professor Shirley Smoyak at Rutgers University in the USA and focuses on the university student and mental health clinician populations. Both groups are under-researched but over-represented in respect of this phenomenon. From these broad common roots however, the Auckland project has developed its own flavour and direction. Professor Frances Hughes, Director of the Centre for Mental Health Research, Policy and Service Development & Associate Professor Robyn Dixon, Director of the Centre for Child and Family Policy Research, are co principle investigators.

Mental Health Clinicians and Stalking

Overseas research reveals some interesting elements of stalking among mental health clinicians (Smoyak, 2003). For instance, mental health clinicians often experience a higher incidence of stalking than the general or student populations, with a sizeable proportion of this related to their work. While there are variations in how stalking is defined and measured, some examples of this include: In one USA study (Smoyak, 2003), a little over a third of nurses reported having been stalked with a third of incidents attributable to the clinicians work – that is they were stalked by clients or supervisors. In another study, this time based in Italy (Galeazzi, Elkins and Curci, 2005), the group surveyed included doctors, nurses and other health professionals. While harassment was experienced by over a third of respondents, this dropped to around 11% when a stricter definition of stalking was applied. In the vast majority of these cases (90%) the stalker was a client. Other research shows that family of staff can also sometimes be victims (Romans, Hays and White, 1996).

Clinicians are of particular interest not only because they may have been victims of stalking, but because they are often required to treat perpetrators and victims of stalking. Of particular interest in terms of future work in this area is the argument that how clinicians define this behaviour, determines the action that is taken in response (Smoyak, 2003). Further, many instances that would be seen as stalking according to accepted definitions for the general population, are not seen as such by clinicians and so little, if anything, is done in response. Even when the behaviour is seen as stalking, if the perpetrator is a client, then clinicians often feel that they should be able to deal with it or it is an expected part of the job.

While clinician-orientated research on stalking often concerns diagnosis and treatment, this study will, as a starting point, examine the prevalence of stalking among New Zealand nurses and doctors working in the field of mental health. It will also explore the nature of these experiences. Drawing on the work of Shirley Smoyak and an international collaboration who have undertaken research in the European Union, a survey has been developed that will be distributed among clinicians through their professional bodies. It is intended that the study will serve as an entree to further research and as a way of opening up a discussion and looking at the relevant issues within this group in New Zealand.

Stalking amongst young people

Young people aged between 18 and 24 years are at a higher risk of being stalked (Tjaden & Thoennes, 1998). Studies undertaken with undergraduate student populations (Finn, 2004; Fremouw, Westrup & Pennypacker, 1997; Phillips, Quirk, Rosenfeld & O’Connor, 2004) reveal particularly high prevalence rates. The stalking behaviours reported are wide ranging and experienced as threatening, intrusive and hostile. Behaviours reported include persistent following, invasion of personal space, phone, email and SMS (Short Message Service) harassment, threatening harm to victim or victim’s loved ones, and assault. Most young victims are stalked by someone they know with whom they have had a prior relationship, including friends, acquaintances and those they have dated. Although research is limited in this area, that which has been undertaken suggests that significant psychological stress is experienced by victims of stalking, which is likely to impact on their overall psychosocial development and mental health (Ravensberg & Miller, 2003). Possible reasons offered for the higher rates of stalking amongst young university students are developmental deficits in social skills and the nature of university student life where undergraduates tend to share common spaces, spend large amounts of time in close proximity to one another and have less structured time than full time working people.

A number of theories have been proposed on the development of stalking behaviour. The most recognised explanation is that of attachment difficulties, specifically the development of an insecure (preoccupied) attachment style in early infancy (Ravensburg & Miller, 2003). An intriguing association has been proposed between stalking and bullying. It has been suggested that bullying may serve as a risk factor or early manifestation of stalking (McCann, 2001). These suggestions are based on observed similarities in definitions of stalking and bullying and in characteristics and behaviours associated with both stalking and bullying. Empirical research is needed to explore these associations further.

Currently, no research is available on the prevalence of stalking in New Zealand. Given that international research has shown this to be a significant problem (particularly for young people) that appears to be on the increase, research on stalking in the New Zealand context is keenly needed. Using survey methodology, this study will investigate the nature and extent of stalking amongst university students in New Zealand. Further, it will explore the characteristics of young adult victims and perpetrators of stalking and examine the development of stalking behaviours, exploring links between bullying and stalking.

References

Finn, J. (2004). A survey of online harassment at a university campus. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 2004(4), 468-483.

Fremouw, W.J., Westrup, D. & Pennypacker, J. (1997). Stalking on campus: the prevalence and starategies for coping with stalking. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 42 (4), 666-669.

Galeazzi, G., Elkins, K. and Curci, P. (2005). The Stalking of Mental Health Professionals by Patients. Psychiatric Services 56(2):137-138.

McCann, J. T. (2001). Stalking in children and adults: The primitive bond. (1st ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Meloy, J. (ed) (1998). The Psychology of Stalking: Clinical and Forensic Perspectives. San Diego, Calif: The Academic Press (Harcourt, Brace and Co.).

Phillips, L., Quirk, R., Rosenfeld, B., & O'Connor, M. (2004). Is it stalking? Perceptions of stalking among college undergraduates. Criminal Justice and Behavior, 31(1), 73-96.

Purcell, R., Pathe, M. and Mullen, P. (2002). The prevalence and nature of stalking in the Australian community. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36:114-120.

Ravensberg, V. & Miller, C. (2003). Stalking among young adults. A review of the preliminary research. Aggression and Violent Behaviour, 8, 455-469.

Romans, J., Hays, J. and White, T. (1996). Stalking and Related Behaviors Experienced by Counseling Center Staff Members From Current or Former Clients. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice 27(6): 595-599.

Smoyak, S. (2003). Perspectives of mental health clinicians on stalking continue to evolve. Psychiatric Annals 33(10):641-648.